ABSTRACT

Sudan has a rich and diverse cultural heritage, deriving from its unique location and history. Sudan is situated in north-eastern Africa, sharing borders with nine other countries (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Chad, Libya and Egypt) and the Red Sea. The country is dominated by the river Nile, with its two tributaries – the Blue Nile and the White Nile. With an area of more than 2.5 million sq. km, Sudan is Africa’s largest country, and its geography ranges from arid and semi-arid deserts in the north and central areas to savannahs and tropical rainforests in the south. Sandstorms occur, especially during the summer months, and high temperatures, easily exceeding 40°C, in combination with summer rains, may restrict archaeological excavations to the ‘cooler’ months between October and March. Due to its unique geographical location, Sudan has been described as a corridor linking the

Arab world, the Mediterranean and equatorial Africa (Adams 1977), and this is reflected in the number and diversity of its archaeological remains, ranging from the Pleistocene period to 100 years ago. Sudan attracted travellers and archaeologists in the 18th and 19th centuries, but many of their observations concentrated on exploring parallels between the cultural remains of Sudan and those of its northern neighbour, dynastic Egypt, in line with the prevailing Egyptocentric view (Adams 1998). This contributed to the majority of excavation taking place in Nubia, the northern part of Sudan, with many archaeologists viewing the country as a cultural extension of Egypt (Török 1997). Politically, Sudan was ruled by Egypt as part of the Ottoman Empire, and since 1898, as Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the country remained under foreign rule until its independence in 1956. As a consequence of the colonial administration, Sudan was opened up for archaeological research to foreign missions, exploring pyramids and temples, as well as prehistoric and historic settlements and cemeteries. In 1903, Sudan’s first Antiquities Service was established and two years later the Antiquities

and Museums First Ordinance began to regulate archaeological work under the guidance of J.W. Crawfoot. The post of Commissioner for Archaeology and Anthropology was held by British archaeologists A.J. Arkell (1938-48), P.L. Shinnie (1948-55) and the French archaeologist J. Vercoutter (1956-60), who all directed archaeological excavations in Sudan. Shinnie

was also responsible for drafting the second Antiquities Ordinance of 1952, which set out clear definitions of objects and monuments covered by the Ordinance. With the Sudanization of government posts in 1960, the first Sudanese Commissioner for

Archaeology, T.H. Thabit, was appointed and subsequently joint surveys and fieldwork projects between Sudanese and foreign archaeologists began to increase. Today, Sudan has five university departments teaching archaeology and a large number of museums which curate and display the cultural heritage of Sudan. The National Museum of Sudan in Khartoum was already established in 1904 and today houses the majority of archaeological finds, but a number of regional museums exist across the country or are being planned. Due to the considerable time depth of human occupation and the vast geographical area,

there is no straightforward archaeological chronology of Sudan’s prehistoric and historic periods. However, the main periods, especially for Upper Nubia, have already been defined in the earlier part of the 20th century and are still largely valid today. Nevertheless, many dates have changed over time and might continue to do so with the development of even more exact scientific dating methods. Table 45.1 gives an overview of the chronological framework and associated sites, especially cemeteries, but due to the large number of archaeological sites this has to remain incomplete. Many of the cemeteries were in use over considerable amounts of time, for example skeletons from Qustul date to the Neolithic, Meroitic and post-Meroitic periods. The study of human remains derived from the territory of modern-day Sudan has a long

history, dating back to the 19th century. Here an overview of the main archaeological

Table 45.1 Overview of chronological periods and some archaeological sites in Upper Nubia and Central Sudan

Chronology (BC/AD) Upper Nubia Central Sudan

Before 8000 Upper Palaeolithic (? Jebel Sahaba) Pre-Mesolithic (Al-Khiday 2) 8000-6000 Mesolithic (Wadi Halfa 6-B-36,

El-Barga) Mesolithic (Khartoum Hospital, Saggai 1, Shabona, Al-Khiday 1)

6000-5500 Early Neolithic (El-Barga) Late Mesolithic (Kabbashi, 10-W-4) 5500-5000 ? 5000-4500 Middle Neolithic (Kadruka 13, 18

and 21, R12, Kerma Site 8, Multaga) Early Neolithic (Shaheinab, El-Ghaba, Kadero)

4500-4000 4000-3500 Late Neolithic (Es-Sour; El-Kadada, until 3400

BC; Shaqadud, after 3000 BC)3500-2600 Pre-Kerma (Kerma Site 1, 21; Saï 8-B-52A)

2600-1500 Kerma (early, middle and classic periods; Saï 8-B-51, Kerma, Buhen)

(Khasm el-Girba)

1500-1100? Late Kerma (Tombos, Kerma, Soleb, Mirgissa)

?