ABSTRACT
Jason is a second grader in an af uent school district who has struggled in reading since kindergarten. Although Jason has an extensive oral vocabulary and excellent listening comprehension, his difficulties with decoding printed words have greatly impaired his reading comprehension in grade-appropriate text. William, a third grader in an urban school, has severe decoding dif culties similar to Jason’s but also has limited vocabulary knowledge that affects his comprehension adversely, in listening as well as reading activities. Grace, an eighth grader in a suburban junior high, progressed normally in reading in the early grades and has no history of word decoding problems. However, she cannot comprehend many of the complex texts used at upper grade levels and is having particular dif culty understanding textbooks in content areas such as science. None of the children has intellectual, sensory, or emotional disabilities that might account for his or her poor reading.
