ABSTRACT

It is now universally accepted that the combustion of oil fuel is the major reason for modern cities’ atmospheric contamination. 1,2 And, the decreasing amount of petroleum resources impels people to seek for other clean energy substitutes. Along with the development of renewable energy technology, such as solar, wind, and tidal energy, how to effectively store these kinds of intermittent energy becomes more important in this century than it was in the past. Lithium-ion battery (LIB) is considered to be one of the most important energy storage and conversion technologies 3 with prominent advantages of high energy and power densities, 4–8 which have witnessed large-scale application in portable electronic devices, communication facilities, stationary energy storage, and ever-enlarging markets of electrically powered vehicles. 9