ABSTRACT

Mentioning the pharaohs of ancient Egypt generally invokes images of pyramids, impressive statues and mummies. 1 These three images, however, are often associated with distinctly male pharaohs. Indeed, it is not unreasonable to claim that the only female ruler to come to mind is Cleopatra, Egypt’s last pharaoh. Between the uniting of Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer in c.3000 bce and the annexation of Egypt by Augustus in 30 bce, Egypt was ruled by hundreds of pharaohs. Significantly, and despite their absence in both the scholarship and in popular culture, at least four of these pharaohs were women.