ABSTRACT

Climate change is an urgent problem for coastal regions already facing the challenges of urbanization, overcrowding, subsidence and nutrient loading. Global mean temperatures are on the rise, ice sheets and glaciers are rapidly melting, and sea levels are rising (Nicholls et al. 2007; for an overview, see Moser et al. 2012). Scientists expect sea-level rise to exacerbate existing risks such as coastal flooding, coastal land loss, rising water tables and drainage problems, and salinization of coastal environments (Blum and Roberts 2009; Gonzalez and Tornqvist 2006; IPCC 2014; Karl 2009; National Academy of Sciences 2003: 4; Stern 2007; USGCRP 2013). Apart from climate change, predicted land loss combined with increasing population growth in coastal areas could endanger regional economies, threaten sources of fresh water, and alter land cover patterns and ecosystem services (e.g. provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; and cultural services such as spiritual, recreational and cultural benefits) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). “The scope, severity, and pace of future climate change impacts are difficult to predict”, according to the White House Council on Environmental Quality (2010: 6), but “coastal areas will need to prepare for rising sea levels and increased flooding.” Adding to the challenge of responding to these impacts, climate-related changes will likely exacerbate the impacts of other non-climatic risks and stressors such as pervasive inequality, jurisdictional fragmentation, fiscal strains, ageing infrastructure, habitat destruction and pollution (IPCC 2014).