ABSTRACT

For some time, social studies of technology have questioned the notion that innovation occurs in a simple linear fashion. Such studies have challenged the assumption that ‘pure’ scientific research directly informs downstream applied research, which in turn yields technology readily accepted by audiences who unquestioningly use that technology in a manner anticipated by its producers (Williams and Edge 1996). In contrast, social studies of technology have drawn attention to the heterogeneity apparent among users of technology. Social research has described how differing interests among users may compete to influence the development of technology (Pinch and Bijker 1984). Other research has demonstrated how ‘users’ of technology may innovate as much, if not more, than the original producers. Instead of framing technology via a simple dichotomy of ‘users’ and ‘producers’, this work suggests that a variety of actors participate in the construction of technology in non-linear ways. Rather than producers and users, social research suggests that actors may be more appropriately described as stakeholders in technology and innovation.