Abstract

U.S. military forces invaded Spanish Florida six times in a single decade (1810–11, 1812–13, 1813, 1814, 1816, and 1818), engaging Spanish forces in four of those campaigns (1812, 1813, 1814, and 1818). Two of these incursions (1812, 1816) were unauthorized by Congress or the executive branch; two (1814, 1818) exceeded War Department instructions. American citizens acting contrary to U.S. neutrality law and international peace (“filibusters”) invaded Florida, or Americans rebelled against Spanish authority there, in 1804, 1810, 1812, and 1814. Groups of American citizen-filibusters also invaded Texas in 1812 and 1819, to say nothing of many intrusions by individuals contrary to Spanish law and international custom. In sum, the United States and its citizens conducted an unprovoked quasi-war against Spain.